bacterias

agujeros blancos

agua

aire

fuego

tierra

acido sulfurico

metano

arboles

el sol

class: 17

mayo 03/2010

item: asexual reproducction plants

asexual reproducction: no there intervention of gamets, is tell vegetative too

rizomas

tuberculo

bulbos

esquejes

estacas

injertos

gajo

estolon

REPRODUCCION ASEXUAL POR RIZOMAS:ejemplos: fresa y gengibre, es una clase de reproduccion en la cual las plantas producen tallos subterraneos que si si tapan con tierra y son abonados produciran raiz, con el tiempo se corta esta raiz y se formara una nueva planta.

REPRUDUCCION ASEXUAL POR TUBERCULOS:son tallos subterraneos que son capaces de reproducir nuevas plantas; estos tallos tienen la capacidad de almacenar almidon y un ejemplo clasico de un tuberculo es la papa.

REPRODUCCION ASEXUAL POR BULBOS: son estructuras o tallos subterraneos formados por varias hojas, con el tiempo se subdividen en bulbos + pequeños que formaran nuevas plantas, como por ejemplo: el tulipan y la cebolla cabezona.

REPRODUCCION ASEXUAL EN ESQUEJES: son unos tallos que se sweparan de las plantas para llevarlo dentro del agua y se aplica fertilizante, se hace con cualquier planta con flores.

REPRODUCCION ASEXUAL POR ESTACAS: consiste en cortar un tallo con llemas y llevarlo a tierra fertilizada para que se reprodusca.

REPRODUCCION ASEXUAL POR INJERTOS: insiste en insertar en una planta u8na rama similar de otra variedad se debe amarrar y proteger para que se reprodusca.

REPRODUCCION ASEXUAL POR GAJO: es igual al esqueje

REPRODUCCION ASEXUAL POR ESTOLON: SON MUY PARECIDOS A LOS RIZOMAS, OCURRE EN LAS PLANTAS COMO LAS ENREDADERAS, EMPIEZA A SUBIR LE SALE RAIZ Y SE PUEDE CORTAR.

son tallos aereos orizontales que cuando son largos y tocan un medio apropiado producen raiz y generan una nueva planta.

- The first reproducction in mosses and ferns is called sporophyte (2n) reproduces asexually the produce spores.




the second generation is sexual reproducction or gametophyte (n) is clone by sexual gametes (male and female gametes)


SEXUAL MALE OR FEMALE CELL

antheridium : sori (saro)

male gametophyte

(gametofito masculino)



Archegonium


on the underside of the leaves are the sorb they are male or anterdium and produce haploid (n) spares.



the prothanium is the female gamete or archegonium, it is amorpous and have root like rhizoids, the archegonium is heart shape

Nucléolo

En biología celular, el nucléolo o nucleolo es una region del núcleo considerada como un orgánulo. La función principal del nucleolo es la producción y ensamblaje de los componentes ribosómicos. El nucleolo es aproximadamente esférico y está rodeado por una capa de cromatina condensada. El nucléolo, es la región heterocromatica más destacada del núcleo. No existe membrana que separe el nucleolo del nucleoplasma.

Los nucleolos están formados por proteínas y ADN ribosomal (ADNr). El ADNr es un componente fundamental ya que es utilizado como molde para la transcripción del ARN ribosómico, para incorporarlo a nuevos ribosomas. La mayor parte de las células tanto animales como vegetales, tienen uno o más nucleolos, aunque existen ciertos tipos celulares que no los tienen. En el nucleolo además tiene lugar la producción y maduración de los ribosomas,y gran parte de los ribosomas se encuentran dentro de él. Además, se cree que tiene otras funciones en la biogénesis de los ribosomas.



ro
ADN

El ácido desoxirribonucleico, frecuentemente abreviado como ADN (y también DNA, del inglés DeoxyriboNucleic Acid), es un tipo de ácido nucleico, una macromolécula que forma parte de todas las células. Contiene la información genética usada en el desarrollo y el funcionamiento de los organismos vivos conocidos y de algunos virus, siendo el responsable de su transmisión hereditaria.

NUCLEO

En Biología el núcleo celular (del latín nucleus o nuculeus, corazón de una fruta) es un orgánulo membranoso que se encuentra en las células eucariotas. Contiene la mayor parte del material genético celular, organizado en múltiples moléculas lineales de ADN de gran longitud formando complejos con una gran variedad de proteínas como las histonas para formar los cromosomas. El conjunto de genes de esos cromosomas son el genoma nuclear. La función del núcleo es mantener la integridad de esos genes y controlar las actividades celulares regulando la expresión génica. Por ello se dice que el núcleo es el centro de control de la célula.


MEMBRANA NUCLEAR

Es la envoltura que rodea al núcleo, compuesta de dos membranas, que se fusionan en algunos puntos formando poros nucleares, los cuales son los encargados de permitir la comunicación del interior del núcleo con el citoplasma celular.

CROMOSOMAS

Los cromosomas son los portadores de la mayor parte del material genético y condicionan la organización de la vida y las características hereditarias de cada especie. Los experimentos de Mendel pusieron de manifiesto que muchos de los caracteres del guisante dependen de dos factores, después llamados genes, de los que cada individuo recibe un ejemplar procedente del padre y otro de la madre.

LISOSOME
Ayuda a los procesos digestivos de la célula enzimática, ayuda a destruir agentes patógenos.















CENTROSOMES

Forma los hilos del uso acromático por donde se desplazan los cromosomas.














RIBOSOMES
Se producen en el núcleo tapizando el Retículo Endoplasmático Rugoso





GOLGI APARATUS
Es un almacén de lípidos y proteína formada por una serie de sacos aplanados produce unas sustancias de secreción donde se producen los lisosomas.


8.4. Plastidios










Plástidos
Cloroplastos
Cromoplastos
Leucoplastos
Amiloplastos
Proteinoplastos

Clasificación

Son orgánulos característicos de las células eucarióticasvegetales . Tienen forma y tamaño variados, están envueltos por una doble membrana y tienen ribosomas semejantes a los de los procariotas.














Se forman a partir de proplastos, que son los plástidos de células jóvenes.









CLASS: 6
DATE: FEBRUARY 23/10
ITEM: CELL REPRODUCTION

THE NUCLEUS

MEIOSIS I
Aunque el código genético de un ser humano se contiene dentro de 46 cromosomas, sólo la mitad de este número existe dentro de la célula de un esperma o huevo. Si las células no tuvieran la mitad, un huevo fertilizado contendría 92 cromosomas y sería insostenible. La meiosis, un tipo de división celular específica a la reproducción, evita esto partiendo en dos el número de cromosomas en una célula. La célula mostrada aquí se dividirá dos veces, produciendo cuatro células. Cada uno de estas células tendrá sólo el número medio de cromosomas, pero cada cromosoma contendrá la información genética de ambos padres.

Interphase I
* Período entre las divisiones celulares. Durante este tiempo, los cromosomas se reproducen-replicación del ADN. Los cromosomas se pueden observar sin el uso de un microscopio. El par de centríolos se duplica.
Nota: el Azul indica los cromosomas del padre; el naranja indica los cromosomas de la madre.


Profase I
Esta es la fase más larga de la meiosis, y en ella los cromosomas homólogos intercambian fragmentos de material genético. Se divide en cinco subfases:

Leptoteno: Comienzan a contraerse los cromosomas y se hacen visibles.

Cigoteno: Los pares de cromosomas homólogos se aparean entre sí. Durante el apareamiento o sinapsis, cada par de homólogos forma una estructura compleja de ADN y proteína, el complejo sinaptonémico.


Paquiteno: Los cromosomas constituyen hebras gruesas debido a que la sinapsis es completa.
Se produce el fenómeno de entrecruzamiento o crossing-over entre los cromosomas homólogos. El entrecruzamiento consiste en un intercambio de fragmentos cromosómicos entre dos cromátides homólogas (no hermanas). Suelen darse dos o tres de estos entrecruzamientos por cada par bivalente.
Los nucleólos son muy conspicuos.
Diplotene: Como cada cromosoma está formado por sus dos crmátidas hermanas y, a su vez, los dos cromosomas homólogos están apareados entre sí, en esta etapa se observan estructuras formadas por un haz de 4 cromátidas, llamadas tétradas.
El apareamiento cromosómico se vuelve más laxo y pueden observarse unas estructuras llamadas quiasmas que son la manifestación citológica del entrecruzamiento. Los cromosomas homólogos comienzan a repelerse entre sí; la formación de los quiasmas es un fenómeno relevante para la correcta segregación cromosómica.
Diacinesis: Los cromosomas se condensan al máximo y forman estructuras capaces de segregar.
Desaparecen el núcleo y la membrana nuclear, por lo que quedan libres en el citoplasma.

Prometafase I
* Como en la mitosis, la membrana nuclear y los nucléolos ya desaparecieron completamente cuando comienza esta fase.

Metafase I
* Los cromosomas se hallan en el plano ecuatorial y se ha formado el huso. Los dos cromosomas homólogos se unen, cada uno a través de su centrómero, a fibras del huso que tirarán hacia polos opuestos.


Anafase I
* Al igual que en la mitosis los cromosomas se desplazan hacia los polos. Sin embargo, en la anafase I meiótica los que se separan (segregan) son los dos cromosomas homólogos de cada par. Cada uno de los cromosomas de cada par homólogo segrega al azar, es decir, independientemente de los cromosomas de los otros pares.


Telofase I
* Esta fase varía en los diferentes organismos. A veces los cromosomas pierden su condensación y se forman las membranas nucleares alrededor de cada uno de los polos. Otras veces, los cromosomas pasan directamente a la meiosis II. Nunca ocurre una fase de síntesis, es decir de duplicación de ADN, luego de la telofase I.


Citocinesis
* La telofase I finaliza con la división del citoplasma en las células hijas, proceso que se denomina citocinesis.

MEIOSIS II
Interfase II
* Los cromosomas no se reproducen durante esta fase.


Profase II
* Los cromosomas están completamente condensados y se hallan en número haploide.

Prometafase II
* Las fibras del huso atan a los cromosomas. Los centriolos están ahora en los polos de la célula. Como en el prometafase de la mitosis, las fibras de ambos extremos de las células atan a cada uno de los cuatro cromosomas.


Metafase II
* Los cromosomas se hallan en el plano ecuatorial y se unen al huso mitótico a través de sus centrómeros.

Anafase II
* Las cromátides, ahora cromosomas hijos, se separan y migran hacia los polos.


Telofase II
* Se forman las membranas nucleares y los cromosomas comienzan a descondensarse.

Citocinesis
* La telofase II finaliza con la división del citoplasma que da lugar a las células hijas.

Sexual reproduction

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Sexual reproduction is characterized by processes that pass a combination of genetic material to offspring, resulting in increased genetic diversity. The main two processes are: meiosis, involving the halving of the number of chromosomes; and fertilization, involving the fusion of two gametes and the restoration of the original number of chromosomes. During meiosis, the chromosomes of each pair usually cross over to achieve homologous recombination.

LO ENTENDIDO:

PROFASE, LA CROMATINA SE EMPIEZA A HACER VER COMO UNA SERIE DE PALOS "CROMOSOMAS" Y NO COMO PUNTOS.

METAFASE, LA MEMBRANA NUCLEAR DESAPARECE Y ES MAS NOTABLE QUE LA  CROMATINA SE VE COMO PALITO "CROMOSOMAS".

ANAFASE, el centromero de cada celula se divide y los microtubulos arrastran las cromatidas hacia los polos

TELOFASE, LAS CROMATIDAS SE DIVIDEN Y DEJAN DE SER VISIBLES, LA MEMBRANA CELULAR BUELVE.

ORGANELOS

Los organelos celulares son componentes de la célula eucariota, compartimentos formados por membrana endoplásmica, que realizan funciones especiales:

• los cloroplastos que presentan doble membrana y membranas internas llamadas tilacoides que contienen pigmentos fotosintetizantes y que realizan la fotosíntesis
• Las mitocondrias que tienen doble membrana, la membrana interna formando pliegues o crestas que contienen proteínas oxido-reductoras y que realizan la respiración aerobia
• El núcleo que también tiene doble membrana y ácidos nucleicos organizados en la cromatina que constituye los cromosomas, responsables de la herencia de las células.
• Las mitocondrias y los cloroplastos tienen DNA y RNAs, por lo que tienen información genética propia que se expresa en biosíntesis de proteínas.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
EXCRETORY SYSTEM

VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES

THE PROCESS OF NUTRITION

the animal kingdom is so huge and varied that it is very difficult to summarise how the different processes are carried out.

• All animals need take food from their environment, all animals need to process the food in order to extract the nutrition elements. The processing of food takes place in the digestive system. Animal digestive system iis made up of a length of tube whish the food runs throught and in whish the food is transformed. Birds and mammals have a more complex digestive system than invertebrates whose system is much more simple or even not-exist, as in the case of sponges.

• Animals also need to take oxygen from their environment, animals have a variety of differents respirator organs fish and many aquatic invertebretes have gills, insects have small tubes called trachea, and amphibeans, reptiles and mammals have lungs.

• all animals need a system for transporting the substances they need to survive to the cells this is called circulatory sistem its more conplicate in the vertebretes than that of invertebrates.
• finally all animals have an excretory system whish clean the blood and eliminates waste products.

VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES

INVERTEBRATES

Poriferan: are sea sponges


Coelenterates: are jelly fish,
corals and sea anemones.
Their bodies are soft and
almost see-through.

Arthropods: are insects,
spiders, crabs and centipedes.
They have a shell, legs and
antennae. Some of them also
have wings.

Molluscs: include snails, clams,
octopus and squid. They have
soft bodies but most of them
also have a shell.

Equinoderms: include sea urchins
and starfish. They have spines
and layers whish form a hard shell.


VERTEBRATES

fish: are acuatic, vertebrates
with scales, fins and tube.like
bodies. The are oviparous
and they breathe through.

Amphibians: include frogs
and salamanders. They are
oviparus. During their early stage
of growth they are aquatic
and their breathe through
gills. The adult animal
breathe using lungs and are
ussualy land creatures.

Reptiles: include snakes,
lizards, tortoises and
crocodiles. Most of htem
are land creatures. They
have scales, they are oviparous
and they breathe using lungs.

Bird: are land creatures.
Their bodies are covered in feathers.
They fly using wings. They are
oviparous and they breathe using lungs.

Mammals: are land creatures although some of them live in the water. Most of the have hair. They are viviparous and they breathe using lungs.

divercity of plants

22 September/ 09


THE DIVERSITY OF PLANTS

The plant kingdom is the second largest kingdom ( has the most species) after the animal kingdom. There are around 200,000 known species of plant.

We have seen a non-scientific classification of plants according to their shape. In order to classify them scientifically we have to use the criteria.

Plants are either vascular or non-vascular. This means that they either have or don't have a tube like structure which transports water, nutrients and mineral salts up the steams.
Some plants produce flowers and some do not.
some plants produce fruit and others do not.
Using these three criteria we can divide the plant kingdom into four large groups:


1.Bryophytes or mosses: commonly called mosses and liverworts, they are the smallest and simplest of all the plants. They have no fruit and are non-vascular. They depend on the presence of water of their survival and life in damp places.
2.Pterydophyta: this is a group of ferns. They are medium-sized vascular plants but they have no flower or fruit. They have large leaves are divided up into different sections. They also live and damp places.
3.Gymnosperms: this plants are vascular and they have flowers but not fruit. Most of them are threes or bushes like the pine tree and juniper bush or cypress. The largest tress in the world, the sequoias, belong to this group.
4.Angiosperms: these-plants are vascular, they have flower and fruit. This group of plants is the most varied because it includes grasses, bushes and trees. Some examples are, poppies, roses, rock-rose, thyme, holm cak, chestnut etc.

NUTRITION IN PLANT

FOOD FOR PLANTS

plants are producers which means that they produce their own food. In order to do this they need to absorb substances from the soil and the air and to transform them. This process has the following steps

1.plants absorb water and mineral salts from the soil plants need to absorb to their root . Various different mineral salts are dissolve in the water. The mixture of mineral salt and water which is up sort, by the plant is noun us raw sap.
2.The steamtransport the raw sap of the leaves, the rous sap moves up wards from the roots to the steam. After these if caries on up words through the vanes in ther steen, until it riches the leaves.
3.The raw up is transformed in the leabes, the fundamental proces of nutrition takes places in the leaves. This proces is called photosintesis.
4.The elaborated sap is distributed throughtout the plant finaly the nutrients containet in the elaborated sap are distributed throughtout the plant. It richers all the cells throught the vessels.



PLANTS RESPIRATION

plants breathe just as animals do. Their leaves takes oxygen from the airand release carbon dioxyde . Howeber, during the proces of photosintesis they take in carbon dioxide and realice oxygen. This proces of respiration involbes the taking and the relasing of glases bat in the reverse order as happends during nutrition. During the proces of nutrition the plant takes in carbon dioxide and releases oxygen.

During the day time the two proceses, respiration and nutririon are simultaneous. Howeber at night they are not.
.
During the day time plants breathe and carry out the proces of photosisntesis at night plants do not photosintesi but they do beathe

SEAS AND OCEANS

SEas AND OCEAN



the water in the seas and oceans covers almost three cuarters of the earthest surface earth the averal depth of the oceans is three thousand seven hundred
ninty five metres.

THE SALINITY OF SEA WATER


sea water is different from the continental fresh water in sow far as it has a wite content of south solution. the most common sauth in the sea water is
solt you lorate common south. there are also matter cuantities of lorate and others salt content of sea water ofr sea water is could it salinity and it is measere
in grams of soath lost a kg of water, the averech salinity of the water inthe oceans is 35 gramss, pear kg of water.*

in one water seas, were the water evaporate more the risajair level of salinity pearrit, in the red sea for example the salinity 41 grams pear kg of water*
in the very cold seas level of salinity is mach lower for example, in the valtic sea the salinity is only tell wgrams of sauth 10 kg of water, this level of salinity
is similar to some rivers and laker saltiest sea of all, is the dead sea whish has a salinity of 360 grams of salt pear kg of water,
haw ever the dead sea is not realy asi, it is a lake.

the constant movement of water


whe we amalise the movement of water we can see trhree differents site of movements:

1 the waves: are surface and dulations of the sea water and they are do to the action of the wind.

2 the tides: are increces and dicreaces in the level of the sea whish happend to a wrater or laced the wree or true the day.

3 the sea currents: are movements of hiuch mases of water from one point in the planet two anoter. there are one and could currents depending all the point of sorrilling of the movement and the areas
that the currents move thrue.

tarea: cuales son las corrientes marinas, y poner foto

PLANTS

plants

what is a plant?

its a living being

the plant kingdom in made up of organims with the following common characterisc:

they have eucaryotic cells organized into tissues. each tissue has a different funtion: growth, protection, etc. in turn the

fissues are grouped together to make organs such as leaves.

they are producers. they do not need to take in food like animals because they produce their own food.

what do all plants have in common ?

all plants have roots, steams and leaves.

they are green due to substance called chlorophy

plants cannot move themselves from one place to another but they do move.

homework: investigate and write the characteristics of:


grasses: have soft, flexible, green steems sam it samples of glases are:

wheat, nettles, violets, and poppis. Many plants in this category are very small bat others like the banana plants measure of the 2 meters and look like threes

bushes: are plants with a heart, woudy steem called a trunk. Bushes have a short trunk anf the branches grow outwards from the base, very close to the ground. Some bushes are very small like thime and others can grow up 2 m tall like box.

trees: have a much longer trunk and their ranches grow higher at the plant up the trunk. Some examples of threes are:

oack

holk

hold and pain.

PLANT REPRODUCTION

Plant reproduction

plant can reproduce in two different ways:

1)asexual reproduction: only one individual is involved in creating a new plant from its own parts. When we take a cutting off a geranium and replant it we are, in fact, aiding the plant in a asexual reproducction.
2)Sexual reproducction: two individuals are involved. The uniun of special cells from each of them produces a new plant. This is what happens when plants are reproduce throught flowers. Whithing these two broad groups there are many arieties. Some of the ways that angiosperms reproduce.
3)Flowers: the reprductive organims of angiosperms and gymnosperms are the flowers have two parts:
4)the reproductive: parts of a flower are the stamen and stigma
5)the productive: parts of flower are the petals whish make up corolla and the sepals whish up calyx
6)the ovules: are inside the stigma. When the ovules come into contact with the pollen produced in the stament they turn into seed. The flowers turn into fruit.
7)The reproducction proces:
1) pollination: pollen is transported from one flower to another on the wind or by insects like bees and buterflies. This transportation is pollination.
2) the fertilisation of the ovules: when a grain of pollen reaches the ovules. This is how the ovules are ferlilised.
3) the forming of fruit: after this the flower changes. The corolla and the calyx dry up and the stigma grows and changes until it becames the fruit the seeds. Whish are formed from the ovules are inside the fruit.
4) the germination of seeds. The seeds fall on the ground and, in a very short time, they germinate. The seeds open, a samall root comes out and tiny leaves begin to grow. A new plants graws the seeds.

CONTINENTAL WATER

continental water

in side the continents we can find water in the rivers, streams, slapes, and subterranian water diposits. part of the continental water is in the form of ice, on the mountain tops an glacirs. in placeses lake the swamp plants there is a comulation of fresh water from rivers mix together quit sea water.
in comprovition whit the marrin water, the amounth of t5he continental water, is realy insignificant. only 0.36 % of the water on the earth is fresh water from rivers, striams and likes. subtarrean water deposits a ccount for 10 time more than this, 0.365 % oof the total amaunth of the earths water. finily, one point 0.641 % of the earthes water is in the form of ice and snow on the mountain tops in glaciers and in the polar caps.

THE COMPOSITION OF THE CONTINENTAL WATER

continental water also has a certain south content all arthough in mach smoller cuantities than sea water.
rest f h wate
the salinity of the continental water is variable the pures has only, the pures fresh water has only 0.5 grams of south oear kg of water. there are many different timec of south present in continental water, and it the pens of the land that the water has run over. in lakes were there is a lot of evaporation there may be a mach hair level of salinity.

THE MOVEMENTS OF CONJTINENTAL WATERS

CONTINENTAL WATERS are in constant movement the most important movement of water inside the continenets is that of the water in the rivers. the movement of water in a river is called the flow, and it is varible*, in the hair couse on the river that is, close to the sourse, the flow is very fast. this is because the river is flowing through mountain valleis, were there is a stip inclination of the land** in the midle couse of the river the flow is weaker because the inclination of the land is mach gentler* in lowkers of the rover, near to the estuary, the flow is very slow because the is hardly any inclination at arl.
subir imagen de flow.

ANIMALS

OCTOBER 21 st / 09

ANIMALS


The animal kingdom is made up of organims that have the following characteristics.

They have eucaryotics cells organised into tissues are organised into organs like, for example, muscles.
They are consumers. Unlike plants, animals have to take food from their environment.



ANIMALS CLASSIFICATION

animales can be classified into herbivories, carnivories and obnivories according to their food.
Animals can be classified into oviparous or viviparous according to their embryonic debelopment.

Oviparous: develop inside eggs.
Viviparous: develop inside their mother's wombs.



Animals can be classified according to the environment they live in. They can be land or water creatures.

We can classify animals according to whether they have a skeleton. Thet is we can classify them into invertebrates and vertebrates.

Invertebrates: all the animal thets do not have a internal skeleton with a spin. Those are divided into smaller groups:

poriferan
coelenterates
worms
arthropods
molluscs
equinodermas


vertebrates: all animals thats have an internal skeletonwith a backbone those are divided into five smaller groups:

fish
amphibians
reptiles
birds
mammals

water and land relief

the movements of water causes considerable change in the land relie
the flow in gthe rivers and the breaking of wabes against the coast
line has an important impact on the rocks.

we can identify three different stages in the impact of water on the land relief:

erosion: happens when small fragments of rocks break away as o result of the strenght
of the flow of the river of the river or the acrion of the wabes on the coastline.

transportation: is when the movement of the water drags there fragments from the place where they broke off another place.

sedimentation: is the depositing of the materials whish have been transported by the movements of the water.

types of the land relief caused by the afiction of the rivers.
the most characteristics types of relief are the valleys. they are very narrow in the high course of the river where the amount of water in the river is less.


types of land relief caused caused by the action of the sea.

in a high coastline the most typical reloief is in the from of cliffs . a cliff is constantly changing is a result of the breaking of the wabes erode the rocks and dig aut the base of the diff and up being deposited in the from of a beach

TEMAS DE EVALUACIÒN

EL AGUA

importancia del agua para la vida

propiedades del agua

contaminaci`n del agua

movimientos del agua

los mares y oseanos

aguas continentales

agua y relieve